To what extent archaeological materials are useful in understanding the progress of Neolithic man in India?

The Neolithic Age is mainly characterized by shifting cultivation, animal husbandry and settled life. A large number of neolithic sites have been discovered in the Indian sub-continent. Ex Bolan valley, Belan valley. Kashmir valley, Brahmaputra valley and Peninsular India. The archaeological evidence is of utmost importance to us as Neolithic age is pre-historic in nature. Such findings prove to be helpful in understanding the social and cultural patterns of the Neolithic culture.

Existence of mud-brick huts and stone pit-dwellings at various sites indicate the emergence of villages. Highly sophisticated microliths, grinding stones, blades etc., highlight the advancement in tool-making and food processing technology. The remains of food grains and animal bone certify the cultivation of rice, wheat, barley, cotton etc., and domestication of cattle, sheep, goat, and ass. However the discovery of huge ash mounds in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh indicated that animal husbandry was primary occupation instead of plant agriculture. The prevalence of slash and burn type of cultivation practiced by the Neolithic man is further substantiated by the discovery of charcoal in most of the neolithic sites.

Emergence of religion and growth of beliefs can be visualized by the finding of terracotta figurines of Mother Goddess, serpent etc., and the grave goods found along with the dead indicate their belief in the ‘life after death’. Barter system was supposedly in existence and the external contacts of the neolithic man with chalcolithic culture and possibly Harappan civilization also is evident from the discovery of turquoise, lapis lazuli, conch shells etc., in Kashmir valley and the bronze and copper implements in Karnataka. Different varieties of pottery found at various sites indicate the artistic taste of the neolithic man. A series of rock brushings and rock paintings in Karnataka are also found.

In conclusion, looking at the material similarities in a behavioral perspective, we can definitely say that the present day tribal population inherited aspects of the early farming population. Therefore, a corroboration of the archaeological data with ethnographic analogy can gives us solid base for the understanding of the various adaptation strategies and the man-land relationship.

Discuss comparative strengths and limitations of archaeological sources vis-à-vis literary sources for the study of ancient Indian history.

The archaeological sources and literary sources play a crucial role in reconstructing ancient Indian history. The coins, inscriptions, monuments and material remains (pottery, tool implements) etc., constitute the archeological sources while indigenous religious and secular texts and foreign accounts form the literary sources.

The public inscriptions which are generally issued by the ruling monarch consist of prasasti (eulogical), edicts (royal orders) and land charters (copper plate inscriptions). The most noteworthy eulogical inscriptions are found at Allahabad (Samudragupta), Junaghad (Rudradhaman) and Aihole (Pulakeshi II). Land charters of Samudragupta at Gaya and Nalanda are highly informative. Also, 1818 rock edicts of Mauryan emperor Ashoka are very useful about his reign’s administrative organization. The coins of the Mauryans, Guptans, Sakas, Kushans and Indo-Greeks are indispensible for understanding the socio-economic status of their respective ages. The material remains excavated at Indus valley and Stone Age sites are also very vital.

The indigenous literary texts like Vedas (Brahmanical literature), Buddhist and Jain texts, biographies of the native rulers along with accounts of foreigner authors like Arab, Chinese, Greeco-Roman etc., are highly informative of the Indian society.

Archeological sources are said to be less biased and are regarded as primary sources of information. There are more reliable as later interpolations are not possible. However, archaeological excavations are tedious, cumbersome, costly, and suffers from inherent paleographical problems, Also, they do not provide elaborative information about non-material culture.

The literary sources are more detailed and it helps us to understand both material and non-material cultures. Also, the study of literary texts is less expensive and information is easily accessible. But the literary texts, especially indigenous texts are generally expected to be biased, subjective and exaggerating.

In conclusion, corroboration of archaeological and literary sources is essential to construct a more accurate picture. History must be pieced together drawing inference collectively from material and textual evidence to visualize a more reliable picture of ancient Indian history.

Describe the chief Schools of art developed in the post-Mauryan period. How are they influenced by the contemporary economic and religious developments?

The post Mauryan period witnessed the emergence of varied and rich schools or art in the Indian sub-continent. The Bharut - Sanchi, Gandhara, Mathura and Amravati schools of art reached their zenith due to the support and patronage provided by the religious and economic developments of that era.

The Bharut – Sanchi School of art, largely found in Central India, patronized by Shungas is largely characterized by the grand stupas, splendid Toramanas and magnificent Salabanjikas, Yakshis and Yakshas. In Bharut – Sanchi School, many reliefs about life of Buddha were depicted on stupas with Buddha in symbolic forms. The Gandhara School of art, concentrated in North West India was initially promoted by the Indo-Greek rulers and later by Kushans. Gandhara art being basically influenced by Mahayana Buddhism depicts Buddha images with great anatomical accuracy. The rock – cut standing Buddha at Bamiyan valley are the best expressions of Buddha art.

Mathura School of art, being totally indigenous and having a wider religious base was earlier patronized by Sakas and later by Kushans. Earliest idols of Mathura school are of naked Jain Tirthankaras subsequently followed by images of Brahmanical gods and demi-gods. The beheaded statue of King Kanishka is the finest sample of Mathura art. Amravati school of art, patronized in the Deccan by Sathavahanas is hallmarked by rich toranas, ayaka pillars and ayakapatas. The images of Amravati school are depicted with excellent emotions and expressions while Budhha is sculpted in human form in various positions.

The post-Mauryan period was characterized as the ‘Age of Mercantilism’ with extensive foreign trade and wide spread distribution of wealth. SO, the various schools of art were promoted by wider social base (traders, aristocrats) along with the royal patronage. The liberal financial support through donations facilitated the growth of art and architecture, and it reached its celestial heights.

The birth of Mahayanism paved way to the beginning of image worship by 1^st century BC. Subsequently, various sects and religions adopted image worship to attract the masses. Thus, the religion provided an impetus to the growth of art and architecture during the five centuries of post Mauryan age.

In conclusion, the post-Mauryan era can be rightly termed as the ‘Golden Age’ in all fields barring the political turmoil present during 200 BC - 300 AD. The prevailing religious and economic conditions during this period acted as catalyst for various schools of art to reach their glory.

Discuss the comparative merits of Ashokan inscriptions over the literary evidences, as a source of information, for the study of Mauryan Empire.

The Mauryan Empire is the first and one of the greatest empires in Indian history, supposedly established by Chandra Gupta Maurya by overthrowing Nandas and expelling Greek Kshatrapas of North-West India, and later conquest of the Deccan provinces. Ashokan inscriptions and the literary sources play a crucial role for the study of Mauryan Empire.

Among the literary sources, ‘Indika’ by the Greek ambassador ‘Megasthenes’ is of some relevance as it throws light on socio-economic and political conditions of the Mauryan age. However, Indika is just available in fragments, in the form of quotations in the works of later Greek writers. Also, the observations of Indika have been contradicted in ‘Arthasastra’ authored by ‘Chanakya’. Most of the historians doubt the reliability of Arthasastra based on its date and the age of Mauryan Empire, supposedly to be non-contemporary. In spite of its limitations, Arthasastra is considered as a treatise on statecraft and administration of its age. Later works like ‘Mudra Rakshasa’ of ‘Visakadatta’, describes the rise of Mauryan Empire, however not very reliable and trustworthy.

Ashokan inscriptions form the core of epigraphic sources and are of immense help of learn about Mauryan Empire. The minor, major rock and pillar edicts of Ashoka give us abundant and authentic information about his conquest, dhamma and socio-economic conditions of his reign. Major Rock Edict XIII, being most important, discusses the conquest of Kalinga, geographical extent of Mauryan Empire and propagation of Dhamma. Major Rock Edict XII consists of Ashoka’s appeal of equal respect to all sects, virtuous qualities to be possessed and the sins to be abstained from. The Pillar Edict II calls for the moral code of conduct and social harmony. In totality, Ashokan inscriptions, concentrate simultaneously on material and moral welfare of the subjects. The major thrust is on the propagation of ‘Dhamma’ lay the means of non-violence, religious tolerance and righteousness. The diplomatic relations with Hellenic world is thoroughly described in Major Rock Edict XIII.

Ashokan inscriptions are much reliable sources than the literary texts because the texts contain serious flaws and supposedly biased and superficial nature. Whereas Ashokan inscriptions are trustworthy and reliable because they provide detailed information of Ashoka’s reign and later interpolations are not possible.

In conclusion, through Ashokan inscriptions are very handy and informative than the literary sources, a corroborative study is essential, to derive a complete and rational picture of the Mauryan Empire.

Discuss the principles of Ashoka’s Dhamma in the light of his edicts. Do you think that it is still relevant to the present society?

Ashoka’s dhamma meant ‘righteousness’. The concept of dhamma is well discussed in Ashoka edicts which were the oldest surviving documents of Indian history. The edicts found scattered all over the Indian subcontinent are basically official pronouncement of policy, and instructions of Ashoka to his officials and subjects. Ashoka is said to have underwent a complete charge of heart after Kalinga war during his eight regnal year and thus visualized ‘Dhamma’.

The traditional policy of territorial expansion was substituted by Dhamma. As mentioned in Ashokan edicts, Dhamma calls for certain virtues to be possessed and the negative traits to be abstained from. It gives a moral guidance to the subjects and stresses on social harmony and religious tolerance. Respect to elders, parents teachers; equal treatment to all religious sects, ahimsa, moderate accumulation of wealth and judicious spending etc, are dealt with in detail in the Major Rock Edicts VII and III respectively.

The major rock edict IX condemns rituals as ‘the source of ignorance’ and Ashoka appeals for non-sacrifice of animals in ceremonies and food habits. The Major Rock Edict V speaks about the welfare activities undertaken and the appointment of Dhamma Mahavratas to propagate Dhamma. Ashoka strived for the moral and spiritual development of his subjects. He even undertook pilgrimages and sent his kith and kin as missionaries to propagate Dhamma abroad. In totality, Dhamma was not a religion but a ‘way of life.’

Ashoka’s Dhamma holds good even in the present society. Dhamma is distinguished by several characteristic doctrines and philosophical positions. Tolerance was insisted upon as an absolute duty, which is very much necessary for multi-religious country India. Dhamma is completely cosmopolitan and has universal applicability. It can act as a panacea for the religious and social unrest currently prevailing in India.

In conclusion, Dhamma being secular in nature and advocates humanitarian approach, making it a very practical solution. Dhamma promotes social equality and is realistic. So, Dhamma is the need of the hour of the present India. Ashoka’s Dhamma has all-time applicability in a divergent Indian society.